The Public Universal Friend: A Revolutionary Figure Beyond Gender
In the tapestry of American history, particularly during the transformative period of the Revolutionary era, certain individuals emerge who challenge the prevailing norms and offer profound insights into the human experience. One such compelling figure is the Public Universal Friend, an 18th-century religious leader who defied the rigid gender constructs of their time. While the modern lexicon of "nonbinary" was yet to be conceived, the Friend's insistence on living outside established gender categories makes their story a fascinating exploration of identity and societal expectations. This article delves into the life, teachings, and enduring legacy of the Public Universal Friend, highlighting their significance as a revolutionary voice in a period of immense societal change.
Origins of a Divine Messenger
Born Jemima Wilkinson in 1752 in Cumberland, Rhode Island, to Quaker parents, the Public Universal Friend’s early life was unremarkable. They lived at home with their parents and attended local Quaker meetings. While historical accounts of Jemima's youth exist, they are often filtered through the lens of later narratives seeking to frame a transformation from a "sinner" to a spiritual leader. Descriptions from sources like David Hudson's "History of Jemima Wilkinson" paint a picture of a "gay and listless" young woman in her early days.
The pivotal moment in Jemima Wilkinson's life, and the genesis of the Public Universal Friend, occurred in October 1776. At the age of 24, Wilkinson fell gravely ill with what is believed to have been typhus, or "Columbus fever." This near-death experience, described as a period of high fever and near-comatose state, led to a profound revelation. According to their own accounts and those of their followers, Wilkinson's soul ascended to heaven, and upon their return to their body, it was inhabited by a divine spirit. This spirit declared itself the Public Universal Friend, empowered to preach the word of God. From this point forward, Jemima Wilkinson ceased to exist in name, and the Friend refused to answer to their birth name, even quoting scripture, "thou sayest it," when pressed. This marked a radical departure from their former identity, signifying a profound spiritual and personal rebirth.
A Preacher Beyond Conventions
The Public Universal Friend emerged as a preacher during the tumultuous years of the Revolutionary War, a period marked by immense social, political, and religious upheaval. Their theological message, while broadly aligned with Quaker tenets, carried a unique spiritual fervor that attracted a devoted following. The Friend preached about the necessity of turning away from sin, the importance of repentance, and the path to a Godly life. This message resonated with many, and the Friend traveled extensively, holding worship meetings across Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and eastern Pennsylvania.
Their theology embraced concepts such as free will, universal salvation, and a deep opposition to slavery, all of which aligned with certain Quaker principles. The Friend also encouraged sexual abstinence and promoted the equality of the sexes before God. These teachings, particularly the emphasis on free will and personal spiritual connection, were characteristic of the broader evangelical movement of the time, known as the Great Awakening. This religious revival, which began in the early 18th century, emphasized personal piety and a direct relationship with the divine, a sentiment that the Public Universal Friend embodied and amplified.
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However, the Friend operated within the Quaker tradition of "public Friends," itinerant preachers who were permitted to travel and speak in different communities. Despite the similarities in their message, the Quaker Society of Friends ultimately disowned the entire Wilkinson family due to the Friend's radical religious claims and the establishment of a separate religious society.
Challenging Gender Norms
What truly set the Public Universal Friend apart, and what makes their story particularly relevant today, was their radical approach to gender identity. The Friend identified as neither male nor female, explicitly rejecting gendered pronouns and their birth name, Jemima Wilkinson. This deliberate act of living outside the binary of male and female was a profound challenge to the rigid societal expectations of the 18th century.
Their gender presentation was equally unconventional. The Public Universal Friend adopted an androgynous style of dress, blending elements traditionally associated with both masculinity and femininity. They wore a cravat and robe, reminiscent of clerical attire, and a hat typically worn by Quaker men, while eschewing the expected bonnet or head covering for women. This sartorial choice was not merely a matter of personal preference; it was a visible manifestation of their rejection of societal gender roles and a powerful statement about their spiritual identity. This outward presentation drew significant attention, sparking curiosity, controversy, and even anger from those who adhered to traditional norms.
Museum of the American Revolution's Manager of Gallery Interpretation, Meg Bowersox, notes that the Public Universal Friend represents the "closest hard evidence we have to someone in the 18th century who identified in such a way as being genderless." While the term "nonbinary" did not exist then, the Friend's lived experience and self-identification offer a powerful historical precedent. Unlike other figures of the era whose gender identities might be subject to interpretation or ambiguity, such as Baron Von Steuben or Deborah Sampson (who disguised herself as a man to serve in the Continental Army), the Public Universal Friend's insistence on their genderless nature is a more direct parallel to contemporary nonbinary identities. Their followers, when asked about the prophet, would deny the birth name and refer to them as a genderless prophet, the Public Universal Friend.
The Court of Public Opinion and Societal Scrutiny
The Public Universal Friend's unconventional ministry and gender presentation inevitably placed them under intense public scrutiny. While their message of repentance and spiritual growth attracted a dedicated following, it also generated suspicion and criticism. Detractors, including religious figures like Reverend Ezra Stiles, who noted in his diary that the Friend's "disorder is temporary Insanity or Lunacy or Dementia," questioned their motives and sanity.
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Accusations ranged from believing themselves to be the second coming of Christ to posing as a Messiah and assuming male authority. The Friend was scrutinized for their behavior, outward appearance, and lack of formal theological training. A pamphlet published in November 1784, "The Universal Friend’s Advice to Those of the Same Religious Society," detailed their teachings, including forsaking worldly pleasures, advocating free will, and promoting universal salvation. While these tenets were rooted in Quakerism and mysticism, the perceived transgressions of the Friend's ministry began to attract negative attention.
Furthermore, the influential positions held by women within the Society of Universal Friends, and the perception that male followers were subservient to their female counterparts, rankled some outside the group. Reports, whether true or exaggerated, that Wilkinson claimed to be Jesus Christ, coupled with lurid rumors of attempted murder within the community, began to erode public opinion. These criticisms highlight the inherent tension between radical spiritual and social movements and the established order of the 18th century.
Establishing a New Community
Despite the persistent criticism and societal opposition, the Public Universal Friend and their followers continued to grow, eventually embarking on a significant undertaking: the establishment of a new settlement. In the mid-1780s, the Society of Universal Friends began planning a communal living space in western New York, a region then considered wilderness. Vanguard members established a settlement in the Genesee River area by late 1788, and by March 1790, the community was sufficiently developed for the majority of the Universal Friends to join. This settlement, which they named Jerusalem, became the largest non-Native community in western New York at the time.
However, this ambitious endeavor was not without its challenges. Disputes over land ownership plagued the community. The lands acquired were part of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase, which had been resold to financier Robert Morris and then to absentee British speculators known as the Pulteney Association. Each transfer of ownership, coupled with an influx of new settlers, drove land prices higher. The Society of Universal Friends lacked a solid legal title to sufficient land for all its members, leading some to depart. Others sought to exploit the situation for personal gain.
To address these land issues, members of the Society secured alternative sites. The Public Universal Friend themselves moved a few miles west into the area that would become the town of Jerusalem, near present-day Penn Yan, New York, in 1794. Despite these difficulties, the Society of Universal Friends persisted, with the Federal Census of 1800 listing "Jemima Wilkinson or Universal Friend" in Jerusalem, Ontario, New York, with a household comprising the preacher and their closest associates.
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Legacy and Historical Interpretation
The Public Universal Friend died on July 1, 1819, in Jerusalem, New York. In accordance with their wishes, no funeral service was held, and their body was placed in a stone vault in the cellar of their house. Years later, the coffin was moved and buried in an unmarked grave, a testament to their desire to remain unburdened by earthly markers.
The Society of Universal Friends continued for a period after their leader's death, but their numbers dwindled. They were hampered by ongoing land disputes and an inability to attract new converts without their charismatic leader. The Society eventually ceased to exist by the 1860s.
The story of the Public Universal Friend has been interpreted in various ways by modern scholars. Some, like Susan Juster and Catherine Brekus, view the Friend as a pioneer in the history of women's rights, highlighting the influential roles women held within the Society. Others, such as Scott Larson and Rachel Hope Cleves, explore the Friend's significance within transgender history, recognizing their lived experience as genderless. These interpretations underscore the multifaceted nature of the Friend's legacy and their enduring relevance to contemporary discussions about identity, gender, and religious freedom.
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