William McKinley: From Ohio Schoolteacher to the American Presidency
William McKinley, the 25th President of the United States, led the nation through a transformative period at the turn of the century. His journey began in a small Ohio town and took him through the Civil War, the halls of Congress, and ultimately, to the White House. McKinley's education and early experiences shaped his political views and leadership style, influencing his decisions on tariffs, foreign policy, and the gold standard.
Early Life and Education
William McKinley Jr. was born on January 29, 1843, in Niles, Ohio, the seventh of nine children of William McKinley Sr. and Nancy (née Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of English and Scots-Irish descent, their immigrant ancestor, David McKinley, having been born in Dervock, County Antrim, in present-day Northern Ireland. William McKinley Sr. was involved in the iron-making trade.
In 1852, the family moved to Poland, Ohio, to provide their children with better educational opportunities. William attended Poland Seminary, graduating in 1859. He then enrolled at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania, in 1860. However, his time at Allegheny was short-lived, as he returned home after becoming ill and depressed. Although his health recovered, family finances declined, and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny. He also studied at Mount Union College, now the University of Mount Union, in Alliance, Ohio, where he later served as a member of the board of trustees. Before the Civil War, McKinley briefly worked as a schoolteacher in Ohio.
Civil War Service
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, McKinley enlisted as a private in the Union Army, joining the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. He quickly adapted to military life and wrote letters to his hometown newspaper, praising the army and the Union cause. McKinley's courage and competence led to his rise through the ranks. At the Battle of Antietam in September 1862, he was responsible for delivering food and coffee to his unit under heavy fire. His commanding officer, Rutherford B. Hayes, later commended McKinley's actions, stating that every man in the regiment was served with hot coffee and warm meats from McKinley's hands, which had never occurred under similar circumstances in any other army in the world.
By the end of the war, McKinley had attained the rank of brevet major. His military service not only demonstrated his bravery but also forged a lasting connection with Rutherford B. Hayes, who would later become President of the United States and a mentor to McKinley. After Cedar Creek in October 1864, McKinley’s horse was shot out from under him, which pinned him to the ground. As Confederate forces advanced, he managed to free himself and limp back to the Union line. He regained control of his troops and fell back to the northern end of the battlefield.
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Law Career and Marriage
Following the Civil War, McKinley pursued a career in law. He studied at Albany Law School and, after passing the bar exam in 1867, began his legal practice in Canton, Ohio. McKinley became known for his honesty and willingness to take on unpopular causes. For instance, he defended striking coal miners who had been arrested for rioting, proving that most of them were innocent.
In 1871, McKinley married Ida Saxton, the daughter of a prominent Canton banker. The couple faced personal tragedy when their two daughters, Katherine and Ida, died young. Ida McKinley suffered from depression and declining health, but William remained devoted to her throughout their marriage.
Political Career
McKinley's involvement in the Republican Party paved the way for his political career. He served as the prosecuting attorney of Stark County in 1869. In 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he served until 1891, with a brief interruption in 1882. As a congressman, McKinley became a leading advocate for protective tariffs, believing they would foster American manufacturing and prosperity.
During his 14 years in the House, he became the leading Republican tariff expert, lending his name to the legislation enacted in 1890. The McKinley Tariff of 1890, however, proved to be controversial, leading to increased consumer prices and a backlash from voters. In the 1890 election, McKinley lost his seat in Congress.
In 1891, McKinley was elected governor of Ohio, serving two terms. As governor, he sought to mediate between management and labor, developing a system of arbitration to settle labor disputes. He also called out the National Guard in 1894 to curtail strike-related violence by members of the United Mine Workers.
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Presidential Election of 1896
The economic woes of the mid-1890s provided an opportunity for McKinley to showcase his political skills. At the 1896 Republican convention, in a time of depression, the wealthy Cleveland businessman Marcus Alonzo Hanna ensured the nomination of his friend William McKinley as the “the advance agent of prosperity.” The Democrats, advocating the “free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold” - which would have mildly inflated the currency-nominated William Jennings Bryan. While Hanna amassed large contributions from eastern Republicans frightened by Bryan’s views on silver, McKinley met delegations on his front porch in Canton, Ohio. He secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 and defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan.
McKinley's presidential campaign focused on promoting the gold standard and high tariffs to restore economic prosperity. While Bryan traveled the country delivering speeches, McKinley conducted a "front porch campaign," delivering speeches to supporters who came to visit him in Canton.
Presidency (1897-1901)
McKinley's presidency was marked by economic growth and a more assertive foreign policy. He signed the Dingley Tariff of 1897, raising protective tariffs to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act of 1900.
Foreign policy came to dominate McKinley's first term in office. When McKinley became president, the Panic of 1893 had almost run its course and with it the extreme agitation over silver. Deferring action on the money question, he called Congress into special session to enact the highest tariff in history. Spain's repressive rule over Cuba resulted in rebellion, followed by a brutal campaign to cease hostilities on the island. American businesses and individuals lobbied for the United States to intervene, as they not only had investments in Cuba but also visions for something more. McKinley later sent the USS Maine to protect American interests; on February 15, 1898, there was an explosion aboard the ship that killed 266 crew members. With no other diplomatic recourse, McKinley asked Congress to declare war, which it did on April 25, 1898. In about 100 days' time, the United States defeated Spain. The Paris Peace Treaty was signed on December 10, 1898. The United States received Guam and Puerto Rico, paid $20 million for the Philippine Islands, and promised to support an independent Cuba while occupying it for the time being. Earlier that year, Congress had also voted to support the annexation of the Kingdom of Hawai'i. All of these measures were supported by McKinley, now considered the architect of the modern American empire. While these actions enhanced American clout on the international stage and offered new opportunities for trade and economic development, not all populations were grateful for the American efforts. In the Philippines, nationalist leader Emilio Aguinaldo revolted against the Americans for three years, arguing that they were colonizers just like the Spanish. The conflict resulted in the deaths of more than 5,000 Americans and hundreds of thousands of Filipinos, who died from fighting, famine, or disease.
He led the United States into the Spanish-American War in 1898, resulting in the acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. McKinley also annexed Hawaii during his presidency.
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