Language in Education Policy in England: A Review of Multilingualism
Introduction
Since the last comprehensive review in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (ARAL), significant developments have occurred in the understanding and study of multilingualism in England. This article focuses on the intricate and often contentious relationships between educational policy, academic discourse, and everyday sociolinguistic practices within England, specifically concerning its newer heritage languages. It aims to provide an overview of the key processes and issues that have shaped the landscape of language in education policy.
The Interplay of Policy, Discourse, and Practice
The study of multilingualism in England involves a dynamic interplay between educational policy, academic discourse, and everyday sociolinguistic practice. Educational policies shape the context in which multilingualism is addressed, while academic discourse provides theoretical frameworks and research findings that inform and critique these policies. Everyday sociolinguistic practices, in turn, reflect the lived experiences of multilingual individuals and communities, influencing both policy and discourse.
Key Themes and Research Areas
Language, Youth, and Ethnicity
The relationship between language, youth, and ethnicity is a crucial area of study. Hewitt's (1992) work examines the key processes in this relationship, focusing on urban youth and the destabilization of ethnicity through language. This research critically reflects on the capacity of research to engage with these complex dynamics. Rampton (1995a) addresses the emergence of new ethnicities counterposed to dominant patterns of race stratification, providing a detailed ethnographic and interactional account of spontaneous 'language crossing,' where ethnic outgroups use languages like Panjabi, Creole, and Indian English. Back (1996) also explores new ethnicities and urban culture, further contributing to this understanding.
Bilingualism and Educational Assessment
Cummins' BICS/CALP theory, a prominent framework in education, has been influential in understanding the language proficiency of bilingual children. Leung (1996) builds upon this theory, integrating it with Mohan's more detailed notion of knowledge structures for EAL learners, providing a richer understanding of content, context, and language in curriculum-related assessment.
Sociolinguistic Studies of Multilingual Communities
Detailed sociolinguistic studies provide valuable insights into the language practices of multilingual communities. Li Wei's (1994) study of the Newcastle Chinese community utilizes conversation and network analysis to examine code-switching, offering a comprehensive understanding of language choice and language shift across three generations.
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Classroom Discourse and Power Dynamics
Classroom interactions are sites where power dynamics and linguistic practices intersect. Martin-Jones and Saxena (1996) offer a penetrating analysis of code-switching in classroom discourse, illuminating the limits and potential of bilingual support policies in England. Their work highlights how turn-taking and power asymmetries influence the positioning of bilingual participants. Biggs, N., V. Edwards (1991) examines teacher-pupil talk in multi-ethnic classrooms, exploring whether teachers treat all students the same, while Roberts, C., C. Garnett, S. Kapoor and S. Sarangi (1995) focuses on 'Tuning in' in Further Education multicultural classrooms.
Language Surveys and Action Research
Language diversity surveys can be valuable tools for understanding and promoting multilingualism. Nicholas (1994) critiques quantitative language surveys from the 1980s and proposes adapting surveys for action research and teacher ethnography, emphasizing their potential as agents of change. Martin-Jones (1991) critically assesses sociolinguistic surveys as a source of evidence in the study of bilingualism, focusing on survey work conducted among linguistic minorities in three British cities.
Official Reports and Educational Practices
Official reports from organizations like OFSTED provide insights into government-funded provisions for ESL teaching and home-school liaison. The OFSTED (1994) report outlines what is considered 'good educational practice' for ethnic minority pupils and communities, offering a clear view of the prevailing standards and expectations.
Language and Discrimination
Roberts, C., E. Davies and T. Jupp (1992) comprehensively documents the theory and practice of two decades of groundbreaking work on Language and Discrimination. The Commission for Racial Equality (C.R.E.) 1986 provides a Report of a Formal Investigation in Calderdale Local Education Authority about Teaching English as a Second Language.
Code-Switching
Milroy, L. and Li Wei. (1995) presents a social network approach to code-switching, using the example of a bilingual community in Britain. Martin-Jones (1995) explores codeswitching in the classroom over two decades of research. Li Wei and L. Milroy (1995) offers a sequential analysis of conversational code-switching in a Chinese community in Britain. Moffat, S. (1991) studied Code-choice in school, and Moffat and L. Milroy (1992) researched Panjabi/English language alternation in the early school years.
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Literacy Practices
Baynham (1995) explores literacy practices, Saxena (1994) studies literacy among the Panjabis in Southall (Britain), Gregory (1990) examines the negotiation as a criterial factor in learning to read in a second language. Gregory (1993a) researched learning to read in a British and Chinese school, and Gregory (1993b) asks What counts as reading in the infant classroom? Pardoe (1994) writes about Writing in another culture and the value of students' KAP in writing pedagogy.
Challenges and Issues
Curriculum and Monolingual Assumptions
The provision for minority community languages at the secondary level faces challenges due to curriculum specifications that often assume a monolingual English starting point (D.F.E. 1995:6-9). This monolingual bias can inhibit the development of appropriate pedagogies for pupils with mixed levels of proficiency. Stubbs (1991 [1994]) discusses educational language planning in England and Wales, highlighting multicultural rhetoric and assimilationist assumptions. Cameron, D., J. Bourne, (1989) examines Kingman, grammar and the nation and the lack of common ground.
Illegal Radio Broadcasting
The presence of illegal radio broadcasting, particularly among the black, Caribbean-descended population, offers a publicly visible and audible space for the maintenance of Caribbean, especially Jamaican speech. Despite its significance, there is a lack of research on the language use in these stations.
Teacher Professionalism
Brumfit (1995) discusses teacher professionalism and research, including Language Education in the National Curriculum.
Critical Language Awareness
Bhatt, A., Martin-Jones, M., (1992) asks Whose resource? regarding minority languages, bilingual learners and language awareness. Clarke, P. and N. Smith (1992) discuss initial steps towards critical practice in primary schools.
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Other Challenges
Garrett, P., Y. Griffiths, C. James and P. Schofield (1992) writes about Differences and similarities between and within bilingual settings. Ogilvy, C., E. Boath, W. Cheyne, G. Jahoda and H. Schaffer (1992) studies Staff-child interaction styles in multi-ethnic nursery schools. Pettigrew, M. (1992) writes about Government regulation of applied research: Contracts and conditions. Rosen, H., T. Burgess (1980) researched The Languages and Dialects of London Schoolchildren. SCAA (School Curriculum and Assessment Authority). (1996) wrote Teaching and Learning English as an Additional Language: New Perspectives. Verma, M., Corrigan, K., Firth, S.(eds.) (1995) published Working with Bilingual Children.
tags: #language #in #education #policy #1997 #UK
