American Indian Colleges: History, Impact, and the Path to Self-Determination
The history of American Indian education is complex, marked by periods of cultural suppression and recent efforts toward self-determination. Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCUs) have emerged as vital institutions, playing a crucial role in preserving Native cultures, fostering academic success, and empowering tribal communities. This article explores the historical context of American Indian education, the rise of TCUs, their impact on Native students and communities, and the ongoing challenges and opportunities they face.
A Troubled Past: Erasure and Assimilation
For generations, the education of American Indian children was marred by policies aimed at cultural assimilation. A school textbook, dated 1937, used by a Lakota student at Rosebud Boarding School, described Native Americans as "barbarians" and depicted women in a derogatory manner. Such statements reflect a widespread attitude that sought to erase Native identity and replace it with mainstream American values.
Between 1869 and the 1960s, hundreds of thousands of Native American children were removed from their homes and families and placed in boarding schools operated by the federal government and the churches. By 1900 there were 20,000 children in Indian boarding schools, and by 1925 that number had more than tripled. This boarding school era represented a deliberate policy of ethnocide and cultural genocide and human rights abuses. They rank somewhere between dungeons and death camps. They were overcrowded, understaffed, underfunded, operating with limited resources, places where diseases ran rampant.
These boarding schools were designed to strip Native children of their languages, traditions, and cultural identities. The lasting legacy of boarding schools is Intergenerational Trauma and Historical Trauma which is collective emotional and psychological injury over a lifespan and across generations, resulting from the cataclysmic history of genocide. It is the legacy of numerous traumatic events a community experiences over generations. Over successive generations Native people have experienced traumatic assaults that have had enduring consequences for our families and communities. It is a legacy of Historical Unresolved Grief resulting from the historical trauma of genocide, grief that has not been expressed, acknowledged, and resolved. It is Disenfranchised Grief, grief that can’t be publicly mourned. An elder asked one person, “Where and when do we tell our family that we have been sexually molested? At Thanksgiving dinner?” He implies that there was and still isn’t a good time and place to tell their stories. Many survivors interviewed experience what is called Boarding School Syndrome, PTSD including recurring intrusive memories, nightmares flashbacks, detachment disorder, deficient knowledge of traditional culture and cultural skills. Trouble sleeping, poor anger management, deficient parenting skills, tendency to abuse alcohol or drugs.
Even today, the struggle for accurate representation in education continues. In May 2023, the South Dakota Board of Education Standards adopted new K-12 social studies standards that drastically limit students’ exposure to facts and accurate depictions of Native peoples and cultures. According to an analysis by Education Week, 44 states have introduced bills or taken other legal steps to restrict teaching critical race theory. In the case of South Dakota, Gov. Kristi Noem signed an executive order that requires the state’s department of education to review and remove from its policies, materials, standards, and trainings any “inherently divisive concepts.” Gov. Noem’s executive order also places limits on how teachers can discuss racism and sexism.
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This political division interferes with the rights of all students, not just Indigenous students, to learn about the histories of the lands their states are located. These histories and current events include: Native identity and resilience, the cultures and languages of the people who reside in their borders, their kinship and oral traditions, and how sovereign Indigenous nations contribute to the economies, cultures, histories, environment, and successes of the states where they are located.
The lack of accurate depictions of Native peoples and cultures in social studies lessons will negatively impact the educational and life outcomes of Native students, as proven in numerous studies about the impact of identity, culture, and curriculum on students. Invisibility leaves Native students feeling alienated or unable to participate meaningfully when their academic and social needs are unmet. The start of misrepresentation and invisibility begins in K-12 classrooms, and the lack of representation, or misrepresentation in curricula may contribute to Native students experiencing discrimination in the classroom and lead them to believe that a college education is impossible when they do not see themselves included or accurately reflected in the curriculum.
A 2015 report by the White House Initiative on American Indian and Alaska Native Education confirms this assertion. The report found that Native students, especially those attending schools far from their communities, or living in communities where officials do not consult with Tribes, face hostile learning environments (as defined by experiencing discriminatory behavior from fellow students, teachers, and school administrators); are subject to negative depictions of Native peoples on school grounds; experience a disrespect of Native cultures, traditions, languages, and contributions; and are taught inaccurate and harmful misinformation about Native peoples or have their cultures and traditions ignored in curriculum. The report also noted Native students in these schools are suspended or expelled at a disproportionate rate than white classmates for nonviolent, disruptive behaviors.
The Rise of Tribal Colleges and Universities
In response to the historical injustices and the need for culturally relevant education, the Tribal College movement emerged as part of the Native American "self-determination" movement of the 1960s. Federally recognized tribes wanted to have more control over the education of their children and ways to pass on their culture, and develop contemporary skills to build economic capacity. They have developed tribal colleges on or near Indian reservations.
Tribal colleges and universities (TCUs) are a category of higher education, minority-serving institutions in the United States defined in the Higher Education Act of 1965. These educational institutions are distinguished by being controlled and operated by federally recognized American Indian tribes; they have become part of Native Americans' institution-building in order to pass on their own cultures. The first tribal college was Navajo Community College, now called Diné College, founded on the reservation in Tsaile, Arizona, in 1968. It was accredited in 1979. In 1973, the first six American Indian tribally controlled colleges established the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) to provide a support network as they worked to influence federal policies on American Indian higher education. Today, AIHEC has grown to 37 Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States.
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Each of these institutions was created and chartered by its own tribal government or the federal government for a specific purpose: to provide higher education opportunities to American Indians through programs that are locally and culturally based, holistic, and supportive. Through AIHEC, the colleges continue to work together to influence policy and build programs in all facets of higher education. They receive technical assistance in key areas; network with one another, federal agencies, other institutions, and potential partners; mentor new institutions; and plan new initiatives to address evolving areas of need.
AIHEC provides leadership and influences public policy on American Indian and Alaska Native higher education issues through advocacy, research, and programmatic initiatives; promotes and strengthens Indigenous languages, cultures, communities, lands, and tribal nations; and through its unique position, serves member institutions and emerging TCUs. AIHEC activities are supported by member dues, grants and contracts. AIHEC is a 501(c)(3) organization governed by a board of directors, which is composed of the presidents of the accredited United States-based TCUs.
Since the 1970s, when many of these colleges were founded, most tribes have developed curricula that incorporate their Native culture and tradition. Tensions immediately arose between advocates of two philosophies: one that the tribal colleges should have the same criteria, curriculum, and procedures for educational quality as mainstream colleges, and the other that the faculty and curriculum should be closely adapted to the particular historical culture of a tribe.
The Impact of TCUs
TCUs have had a transformative impact on Native students and communities. They provide a culturally supportive environment where students can thrive academically while maintaining their cultural identity.
Academic Success and Sense of Belonging
American Indian students comprise 1% of overall college student enrollment, and continue to experience challenges in higher education, including low enrollment, retention, persistence, and graduation rates lower than most other racial and ethnic groups (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). From 2010 to 2016, American Indian student enrollment in four-year higher education institutions decreased by 28% to 129,000 students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). The decrease in enrollment also led to a decline in graduation rates for Native students. Only 15% of American Indian adults aged 25 or older have completed a bachelor’s degree or higher.
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The challenges Native students experience in mainstream higher education include culture shock; social, cultural, and familial isolation; stress surrounding tests and finances; difficulty maintaining their tribal identity, which leads to feelings of isolation and homesickness; and difficulty balancing tribal responsibilities with coursework. Native students also experience a lack of Indigenous representation in higher education and a Eurocentric curriculum, particularly at predominantly White institutions (PWIs). Native students regularly experience racial microaggressions such as subtle verbal or nonverbal insults along with ongoing colonization through interactions with staff, other students, and the curriculum.
Compared to the support offered at tribal colleges and universities (TCUs), American Indian students at PWIs also face a lack of support. TCUs create environments that foster students’ sense of belonging and their sense of self. TCUs preserve Native cultures and encourage Native nation-building through academic programming and associated curriculum that support tribal communities. As institutions and through their curriculum, TCUs reflect and honor tribal practices and Indigenous cultures, knowledges, values, and languages, which affirms students’ identities as American Indians.
American Indian students’ sense of belonging is a factor that contributes to their retention and persistence at higher education institutions. A study examined the extent to which American Indian students’ sense of belonging at PWIs compared to American Indian students’ sense of belonging at TCUs. Data was collected using the sense of belonging scale (SOBS), a scale within Bollen and Hoyle’s (1990) perceived cohesion scale, to measure American Indian students’ sense of belonging at PWIs and TCUs.
Data from this study was collected from 170 American Indian students who attended PWIs or TCUs in the United States. After data were de-identified, only 135 responses were complete and usable. A total of 69 students (51.1%) attended PWIs and 66 students (48.9%) attended TCUs. Sixteen students listed White/ Caucasian as their other race/ethnicity. The tribal affiliation with the largest number of participants was the Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians (n = 28), with the next highest being the Bay Mills Indian Community (n = 16), then Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate (n = 12). In this study, most students were aged 18 to 24 years old (n = 58), with age 25 to 34 years old closely behind (n = 43). The large majority of participants (78.5%) were also female (n = 106).
Point biserial correlation analysis was run to assess the relationship between American Indian students’ sense of belonging and the type of institution they attended, either PWI or TCU. There was a statistically significant, moderate positive correlation between American Indian students’ sense of belonging and the type of institution they attended, rpb (133) = .476, p < .001. There was a statistically significant, strong, positive correlation between American Indian students’ sense of belonging and the type of institution they attended, rs (133) = .516, p < .001.
The results showed American Indian students at PWIs (M = 3.08, SD = .94) reported lower levels of sense of belonging than American Indian students at TCUs (M = 4.12, SD = .98). This difference was statistically significant, t(133) = -6.25, p < .001. The difference between American Indian students’ sense of belonging at PWIs and American Indian students’ sense of belonging at TCUs was statistically significant, U(133) = -.598, p < .001.
Cultural Preservation and Language Revitalization
TCUs play a vital role in preserving and revitalizing Native languages and cultures. As the use of native languages decreases, TCUs have in language preservation among college-age students and youth. Most tribes have developed curricula that incorporate their Native culture and tradition.
Community Development
TCUs are not just educational institutions; they are also centers for community development. They provide workforce training, promote economic development, and address social issues within their communities.
Graduates Serving Their Communities
The American Indian College Fund serves 34 accredited tribal colleges with 75 campuses located in 13 states in the Southwest, the Northwest, and across the Great Plains from Kansas and Oklahoma to Minnesota and the Dakotas-which serve a combined annual enrollment of nearly 22,000 students. These institutions all offer trade certification and workforce education and associate degree programs. Many offer bachelor’s degree programs and a few offer master’s and Ph.D. programs. Popular majors include business, health professions, construction technology, teaching, and the STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). Graduates have gone on to serve as doctors, engineers, teachers, environmental scientists, construction workers, social workers, and more.
Challenges and Opportunities
Despite their successes, TCUs face significant challenges, including chronic underfunding and low faculty salaries.
Funding and Resources
Most tribal colleges are located on reservations and therefore are not supported by local taxes, nor do they pay them. They receive financial support only from the federal government, chiefly through the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and remain chronically underfunded. This underfunding and subsequent low faculty salaries may be a cause of low retention of faculty.
Faculty Development
Non-Native American faculty reported significantly greater challenges in learning Native American culture compared to Native American faculty.
Opportunities for Growth
Despite these challenges, TCUs have numerous opportunities for growth. They can expand their academic programs, strengthen their partnerships with other institutions, and advocate for increased funding and resources.
Alternate tribal higher education programs are available, including the Tribal College Librarians Institute (TCLI), founded in 1989. Library faculty at Montana State University Library responded to a request for a special workshop to address the professional needs of librarians at Montana's seven tribal colleges. In 1994, TCLI received a grant from the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC) to expand the program in order to include librarians from all AIHEC-affiliated libraries. TCLI has been held primarily in Bozeman, Montana.
Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education is a culture-based publication that addresses issues in American Indian and Alaska higher education. The award-winning journal has published articles by both journalists and scholars. It provides a forum for tribal students, staff, faculty, and college administrators to discuss their needs, successes, and missions.
The American Indian College Fund, originally located in New York City, but now based in Denver, Colorado, provides scholarships for students at US tribal colleges and universities. Foundation and private-sector donations are crucial to its success. The Fund is dedicated to increasing the number of American Indians who hold college degrees. The Fund provides scholarships to more than 4,000 American Indian students annually. As of 2008, the Fund had provided 143,281 scholarships and $237.1 million to support American Indian communities.
The Importance of Accurate Representation
Sharing accurate Tribal histories and cultures gives Native-and indeed all students-the rightful space in the classroom and their communities to be respected, seen, and to succeed. It also reinforces the notion that all histories, cultures, and contributions matter. We must continue to work with state and national policymakers to ensure Native students can succeed at all levels of education, from early childhood to college. We urge allies of Native communities to continue to remind educators, administrators, and policymakers across the nation that an accurate and well-rounded education is the fundamental building block to a functional democracy.
Healing and Reconciliation
Healing is complex and will be up to individuals, communities, and tribes. Of great hope is Sen. Elizabeth Warren’s reintroduction of S. 1723, a bill to establish a Truth and Healing Commission on Indian Boarding School Policies in the United States.
Executive Orders and Federal Support
E.O. 13021 is the main Executive Order involving Tribal Colleges and Universities. Executive Order 13096, signed by President Clinton on August 6, 1998, states that "The Federal Government has a special, historic responsibility for the education of American Indian and Alaska Native students. Improving educational achievement and academic progress for American Indian and Alaska Native students is vital to the national goal of preparing every student for responsible citizenship, continued learning, and productive employment. The Federal government is committed to improving the academic performance and reducing the dropout rate of American Indian and Alaska Native students."
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