Understanding the English Language Learner: Definition, Challenges, and Strategies

The term "English-language learner" (ELL) is widely used in English-speaking countries like the United States and Canada to refer to individuals who are in the process of learning English and whose native language is not English. These students are also referred to as non-native English speakers or emergent bilinguals by some educational advocates, particularly in the United States. Other terms used to describe students with limited English proficiency include English as a Second Language (ESL), English as an Additional Language (EAL), Limited English Proficient (LEP), Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD), non-native English speaker, bilingual students, heritage language, emergent bilingual, and language-minority students.

Defining the English Language Learner

The term "English-language learner" (ELL) was first introduced in a 1994 study by Mark LaCelle-Peterson and Charlene Rivera. They defined ELL students as those whose first language is not English, encompassing both limited and higher levels of language proficiency. The term emphasizes that these students are actively mastering another language, a feat that many monolingual students in American schools may never attempt beyond the limited proficiency gained from foreign language class requirements. In adopting the term, LaCelle-Peterson and Rivera drew parallels to other established educational terms.

Historical Context and Legislation

The history of ELL education in the United States is marked by periods of both inclusion and exclusion. An English-only instruction law, in place since 1872, was overturned in 1967 by SB53, a policy enacted for California public schools to allow other languages in instruction. A year later, the Bilingual Education Act (Title VII) was passed with support from the immigrant community. However, the "taxpayers revolt" led to California's Proposition 13, which proposed funding cuts for public schools, fueled by disapproval of immigrant progress. Cases like Castaneda v. Pickard fought for educational equality and standards focused on developing ELL students. In 1998, California Proposition 227 banned bilingual education once again.

Program Models for ELLs

Various program models exist to structure the education of ELLs, each with different goals and resources.

Fast-Track to English Programs

These programs prioritize rapid English acquisition with minimal native language support.

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Transition-Bilingual Programs

These programs begin instruction in the student's native language and gradually transition to English, typically in elementary or middle school.

Push-In Programs

In this model, the English teacher enters the classroom to support the ELL student, promoting integration with native English-speaking peers. This approach avoids isolating ELL students but requires effective co-teaching and collaboration between educators. Some educators debate whether ELL students in push-in programs should participate in additional foreign language classes, with concerns about potential challenges and the need to prioritize English proficiency.

Pull-Out Programs

This model involves the ELL student learning in a separate classroom with the English teacher, allowing for individualized, focused training.

Scaffolding and Support Strategies

Scaffolding theory, introduced by Jerome Bruner, David Wood, and Gail Ross in 1976, adapts Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development theory to child development. In the context of aiding ELL students, scaffolding involves providing initial support through additional strategies and approaches, which are gradually removed as the student gains independence and proficiency.

Scaffolding Strategies

Associating English vocabulary with visuals
Drawing on a student's prior knowledge
Pre-teaching difficult vocabulary before assigning readings
Encouraging questions from students

Alternative Assessment Methods

In "Labor-Based Grading Contracts," Asao Inoue proposes an alternative to traditional content-based assessment methods in writing classrooms. This approach assigns grades based on effort, measured through quantitative methods like word counts. Students earn high marks by exceeding baseline requirements, promoting effort and rewarding students who may struggle with traditional quality-based assessments. Students collaborate to determine the terms of the grading scales.

Assessment and Accountability

The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), passed in 2015, requires all ELLs in public schools from grades K-12 to be assessed in multiple language domains, including listening, reading, writing, and speaking. However, current research suggests that assessments given to ELLs may be culturally and linguistically inappropriate for reliable testing. Assessments often fail to consider students' linguistic repertoire and knowledge in their first language, leading to language barriers that confound content-based assessment outcomes. Research indicates that students struggle to connect assessment content with their personal lives. This lack of variety in assessments can limit teachers' ability to accurately assess student progress and introduce biases that may result in lower test scores.

Educator Attitudes and Cultural Integration

Educator attitudes play a significant role in the ESL classroom. Estimates suggest that approximately 45% of teachers in America have ELL students in their classrooms, yet negative perceptions of ELL students are not uncommon. Studies have revealed biases that affect students' desire to learn. Misinformation, stereotypes, and individual reservations can alter teachers' perceptions when working with culturally diverse or non-native English speakers. Teachers are often placed in the position to teach English-learning students without the necessary training.

Integrating Culture

Integrating culture into the ESL classroom has proven beneficial. Teachers who encourage students to maintain their cultural or ethnic ties promote their personal and academic success. Students should feel that they gain knowledge from both their culture and the world around them. Encouraging students to share their cultural backgrounds and traditions can foster a sense of worth in school and in their lives.

Addressing Cultural Differences

An ESL student's struggle to participate in class may stem from cultural norms that discourage speaking up to authority figures. Strategies to mitigate this discomfort include offering surveys or reflective writing prompts and inquiring about students' educational and cultural backgrounds.

Institutional Marginalization

ELL students face institutional marginalization beyond linguistic gaps. Adjusting to American scholarly expectations, writing genres, and prompts can be challenging. American writing prompts, with extensive details and examples, can overwhelm ELL students. Students from other countries may be unfamiliar with sharing their opinions or criticizing the government. ELLs may find themselves using their native language most of the time, impeding their progress. Many ELLs experience a "silent period" when they are familiar with the language but do not use it. With time, they may feel more comfortable using the new language.

Effective Instructional Strategies

To maintain a beneficial environment, culture, literature, and other disciplines should be integrated systematically into instruction. Postponing content-area instruction until CLD students gain academic language skills bridges the linguistic achievement gap. Teachers should integrate culture into lessons to foster a sense of appreciation and self-worth. Understanding the cultural background of students in relation to education is crucial, as what might be incorrect in English may be correct in one's native language.

Utilizing Literature

Students benefit from the use of literature in instruction. Reading texts that match learner interests and English proficiency provide comprehensible language input and a chance to learn new vocabulary in context. Motivation and enjoyment can be reached through culturally relevant topics that allow students to express their culture.

Interdisciplinary Approach

Integrating other disciplines into lessons makes the content more significant and creates higher-order thinking skills. Allowing students to translanguage, or alternate between English and their native language, is an essential strategy. Constant and varied feedback should be provided for writing.

Incorporating Technology

Technology supports language development by providing access to videos of activities, events, and places around the world, helping students develop an understanding of new concepts and build background knowledge. Introducing students to media literacy and accessible materials can aid them in their future academic endeavors and establish research skills.

Experiential Learning

Experiential learning and supporting students outside of the school setting are also valuable strategies.

Current Challenges and Future Directions

Despite advancements in rights, strategies, and support for ELLs in the United States and Canada, much work remains. International students, who often constitute a significant portion of ELLs in higher education, are sought after as sources of profit and for their contribution to diversity statistics, but additional funding and resources are not always allocated to support them. Proposed policies and ongoing debates regarding immigration and citizenship continue to pose challenges for this group of students.

Act 20 and English Learners in Wisconsin

2023 Wisconsin Act 20 (Act 20) applies to all students in 4K through grade 3, including English learners and multilingual learners. Act 20 focuses on early literacy screening and intervention.

Key Provisions of Act 20 for ELLs

Early Literacy Screening: Act 20 requires local education agencies to assess all students in grades 4K-3, including ELLs, using a DPI-selected early literacy screener. The screener does not have to be given in English. Students receiving early literacy instruction in a language other than English may be assessed in that language, provided there is an approved assessment available. Currently, Wisconsin early literacy screeners are available in English and Spanish.
Flexibilities for ELLs: Act 20 provides some flexibilities for ELLs, including a good cause exception for students who have been promoted from third grade without completing their personal reading plans and the ability to combine an EL learner’s reading plan with their individualized language plan (ILP).
Diagnostic Reading Assessment: Act 20 states that a diagnostic reading assessment must be administered to all learners scoring below the 25th percentile on the reading readiness screener.
Reading Plans: Act 20 specifies that all learners who score below the 25th percentile of the early literacy screener must have a reading plan. There is no exception for English Learners. However, an EL student’s reading plan may be combined with their individual language plan (ILP).
Collaboration: A learner identified as an English learner is the responsibility of each educator supporting that child. EL students must have access to the same programs and services that are available to non-EL students, including intensive reading support.

Considerations for Implementing Act 20 with ELLs

Language of Assessment: Districts must decide when students will be screened in Spanish and when they will be screened in English. Districts may choose to screen students in both English and Spanish. However, only one score can be used to determine if a student is below the 25 percentile.
Data-Driven Decision Making: Districts should develop a process or set of criteria for determining when the screener will be given in Spanish or English.
Assessment in Multiple Languages: Even in cases when the early literacy screener must be administered in English, districts may also assess the literacy skills of multilingual learners in the other languages they speak.

Resources for Educators

DPI will have model language available that districts can use to create their promotion policies by January 1, 2025.

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