Understanding the Highest Level of Education
Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level, or tertiary education, represents an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completing secondary education. Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. It focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields, according to UNESCO. Higher education represents levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education structure.
Historical Context
In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II innovated as he established the Pandidakterion, with a faculty of 31 professors, to train public servants. In the 7th and 8th centuries, "cathedral schools" were created in Western Europe. Meanwhile, the first Madrasahs were founded in the Muslim empire - initially mere primary schools in the premises of major mosques, which gradually evolved toward secondary, later higher education. However high the intellectual level of these schools could be, it would be anachronistic to call them "universities". According to UNESCO and Guinness World Records, the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco is the oldest existing continually operating higher educational institution in the world and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars. Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the University of Ez-Zitouna in Montfleury, Tunis, was first established in 737.
The Evolution of Higher Education
Since World War II, developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent. In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education. Between now and 2030, the biggest increase in tertiary enrollment ratios is expected in middle-income countries, where it will reach 52%.
Global Perspectives on Tertiary Education
Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. Graduates of tertiary education are likely to have different worldviews and moral values than non-graduates. Graduates are also more likely to embrace cultural and ethnic diversity and express more positive views towards minority groups.
Levels of Education
“Level of education” refers to the different stages of formal education available to individuals. Education is the cornerstone of personal and societal growth and is often referred to as the foundation of a society. Levels of education refer to the different stages of formal education, each serving as a building block marking milestones in an individual’s academic and professional journey. The levels of education provide a learning structure that corresponds to the human developmental stages. Each equips students with the necessary knowledge and skills to proceed to the next level.
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Early Childhood Education
Early childhood education plays a vital role in a child’s overall development and provides the foundation for future learning. It encompasses the initial years of a child’s life to the age of six. It focuses on establishing a solid cognitive, emotional, and social foundation, ensuring their readiness for formal schooling. Preschool education is often the first educational experience for children. Preschool education provides a nurturing environment that fosters curiosity, creativity, and problem-solving skills. Children engage in various activities that help develop their fine and gross motor skills. Pre-elementary or kindergarten education serves as a crucial transition between preschool and primary education. In kindergarten, children are introduced to early literacy skills, such as letter recognition, phonics, and basic reading comprehension. Kindergarten also emphasizes the development of numeracy skills.
Primary and Secondary Education
Primary or elementary education lays the groundwork for further levels of education and is crucial in shaping a child’s character and values. During this period, children become familiar with various subjects that form the building blocks of their future learning. The curriculum’s width increases as students move up from one grade to the next, with core subjects being English language, arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. Children typically start secondary education after elementary school, which consists of grades seven to 12. Middle school starts with grade six and ends with grade eight. Students also become exposed to a broader range of subjects beyond the core curriculum. High school is the final mandatory education and serves as the foundation for either entering the workforce or pursuing higher education. The core curriculum in high school includes subjects like English, mathematics, science, and social studies. High school students can also choose from a broader range of elective courses, such as foreign languages, technology, and arts, allowing them to explore their interests and potential career paths.
Post-Secondary Education
Postsecondary refers to the formal schooling received after high school. Higher education refers to the postsecondary education following secondary education. It includes undergraduate (associate and bachelor’s degrees) and graduate (master’s and doctoral degrees) programs offered by colleges, universities, and other institutions of higher learning.
Associate Degrees
An associate degree is an education level beyond a high school diploma but not yet to the level of a bachelor’s degree. Typically, associate degrees are two-year programs (or 60 course hours) offered in community colleges and technical colleges. There are three types of associate degrees: Associate of Arts (A.A.), Associate of Science (A.S.) and Associate of Applied Science (A.A.S.). An A.A.S. in Nursing is a specific degree program that transfers into a specific vocation, whereas an A.A. An associate degree is a two-year degree awarded by community colleges or technical schools. Associate programs aim to give students the basic technical and academic knowledge and transferable skills needed for employment or further study in their chosen field. In terms of level of education, an associate degree falls between high school and a bachelor’s degree.
Bachelor's Degrees
A bachelor’s degree is a four-year program (or 120 course hours) offered by colleges and universities. Bachelor’s degrees offer a broad variety of subjects - more than any of the other levels of college degrees. You may choose from arts and sciences, business, psychology, and studio art, to name a few. Each of these programs of study will come with a different designation, such as the two most popular levels of bachelor’s degrees - B.A. (Bachelor of Arts) or B.S. A Bachelor of Arts (B.A) degree covers all arts studies, including anthropology, communications, French, music and politics (to name a few). A bachelor’s degree is a four-year degree offered by universities and colleges in a specific area of study. The structure of bachelor’s degrees encompasses general education courses, core courses, and electives. General education courses are meant to broaden overall knowledge and sharpen transferable skills like communication, critical thinking, and problem-solving.
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Master's Degrees
A master’s degree is an advanced degree obtained after a bachelor’s, typically requiring 1-2 years of additional study (or 30 course hours). Some master’s programs offer accelerated timelines, online-only programs or even nighttime courses for professionals in full-time careers. A Master of Arts (M.A.) and Master of Science (M.S.) are the most popular master’s degree programs. A Juris Doctor (J.D.) is also considered a graduate degree. Master’s degrees are graduate degrees that allow students to build advanced theoretical and applied knowledge. They typically take one to three years to complete.
Doctoral Degrees
A doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is the highest level of degree, often requiring several years of research and study beyond a master’s degree. Doctoral degrees emphasize research; therefore, Ph.D. students often find careers in academia or highly specialized fields, such as medical, political or legal. A Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) is the most commonly known doctoral degree, but these degree programs are not reserved for philosophy students. You can earn a Ph.D. in many other subjects, such as health and sciences or the arts. On the other hand, doctoral degrees are the most advanced academic degrees and take three to seven years to complete.
Professional and Specialized Education
In addition to higher education degrees, students can also earn professional and specialized education in a specific field. Architecture, law, and medicine programs fall under the regulated professions category, meaning they need specific degrees, such as an MD, JD, or Bachelor of Architecture (BArch). After earning their degree, students must complete an internship or residency. Certifications and licenses are evidence that an individual possesses specialized training in a specific area and meets industry standards. These credentials are often requirements for professional practice in fields like accounting, education, finance, etc.
The Alma Mater
The alma mater, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level (or postgraduate level). The latter level of education is often referred to as graduate school, especially in North America.
Educational Attainment and Socioeconomic Factors
A 2014 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development states that by 2014, 84 percent of young people were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, in high-income countries. Tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers. In contrast to historical trends in education, young women were more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men. Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply. Educational attainment levels refer to the highest degree or level of education that an individual has completed, which can significantly influence their social, economic, and political engagement. These levels are often categorized as less than high school, high school graduate, some college, bachelor's degree, and graduate degrees. Understanding these levels helps to reveal patterns in political socialization, as individuals with different educational backgrounds may have varying levels of political knowledge, interest, and participation.
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Impact on Political Participation
Individuals with higher educational attainment levels are generally more likely to vote and participate in civic activities than those with lower levels of education. Educational attainment influences political opinions; for instance, college graduates tend to lean more liberal compared to those with only a high school diploma. People with higher educational levels often have access to better information resources, enhancing their political knowledge and engagement. The gap in political participation between different educational attainment levels has implications for representation and policy-making. Education is a significant predictor of socioeconomic status, affecting one’s ability to engage meaningfully in the political process.
Questions for Reflection
How do educational attainment levels impact political participation among different demographic groups? Educational attainment levels significantly influence political participation by affecting individuals' likelihood to vote and engage in civic activities. For instance, those with higher degrees typically show greater involvement in elections and advocacy due to their enhanced political knowledge and resources. This creates disparities among different demographic groups where those with lower educational levels might feel less informed or empowered to participate.
In what ways do educational attainment levels correlate with political opinions and ideologies? There is a notable correlation between educational attainment levels and political ideologies. Generally, individuals with higher education tend to lean more towards liberal ideologies, advocating for progressive policies, while those with lower education levels may hold more conservative views. This relationship highlights how education shapes perspectives on issues like social justice, economic policies, and governance.
Evaluate the long-term implications of disparities in educational attainment levels on democratic processes and governance. Disparities in educational attainment levels can have profound long-term implications on democratic processes and governance. A less educated electorate may lead to lower political engagement and reduced representation of diverse viewpoints in policymaking. This could result in governance that does not reflect the needs and desires of the entire population, ultimately undermining the democratic ideals of equity and inclusiveness.
Tertiary Education Around the World
Australia
Within Australia, "tertiary education" refers to continuing studies after a student completes secondary school.
Italy
Education in Italy is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age, and is divided into five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria or scuola elementare), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado or scuola media inferiore), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado or scuola media superiore) and university (università). Education is free in Italy and free education is available to children of all nationalities who are residents in Italy. Italy has a large and international network of public or state-affiliated universities and schools offering degrees in higher education. Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world; the University of Bologna (founded in 1088) notably, is the oldest one ever; also, University of Naples Federico II is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation. Most universities in Italy are state-supported. There are also a number of Superior Graduate Schools (Grandes écoles) or Scuola Superiore Universitaria, which offer officially recognized titles, including the Diploma di Perfezionamento equivalent to a Doctorate, Dottorato di Ricerca i.e. Research Doctorate or Doctor Philosophiae i.e. PhD. Some of them also organize master's degree courses. There are three Superior Graduate Schools with "university status", three institutes with the status of Doctoral Colleges, which function at graduate and post-graduate level. Nine further schools are direct offshoots of the universities (i.e. do not have their own 'university status'). The first one is the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa (founded in 1810 by Napoleon as a branch of École Normale Supérieure), taking the model of organization from the famous École Normale Supérieure. These institutions are commonly referred to as "Schools of Excellence".
Notable Italian Universities
Founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is likely the oldest in the world. In 2009, the University of Bologna is, according to The Times, the only Italian college in the top 200 World Universities. Milan's Bocconi University has been ranked among the top 20 best business schools in the world by The Wall Street Journal international rankings, especially thanks to its M.B.A. program, which in 2007 placed it no. 17 in the world in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational companies. Bocconi was also ranked by Forbes as the best worldwide in the specific category Value for Money. In May 2008, Bocconi overtook several traditionally top global business schools in the Financial Times Executive education ranking, reaching no. 5 in Europe and no. Other top universities and polytechnics are the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan, the LUISS in Rome, the Polytechnic University of Turin, the Politecnico di Milano (which in 2011 was ranked as the 48th best technical university in the world by QS World University Rankings), the University of Rome La Sapienza (which in 2005 was Europe's 33rd best university, and ranks among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges and in 2013, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Sapienza University of Rome 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its World University Rankings.) and the University of Milan (whose research and teaching activities have developed over the years and have received important international recognition). This university is the only Italian member of the League of European Research Universities (LERU), a prestigious group of twenty research-intensive European Universities. The Polytechnic University of Milan is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, an Italian private research university founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in Milan, Italy, with satellite campuses in Brescia, Piacenza, Cremona and Rome.
United Kingdom
Under devolution in the United Kingdom, education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. In England, the term "tertiary education" aligns with the global term "higher education" (i.e. post-18 study). In 2018 the Welsh Government adopted the term "tertiary education" to refer to post-16 education and training in Wales. Since the 1970s, however, specialized further education colleges in England and Wales have called themselves "tertiary colleges" although being part of the secondary education process. These institutions cater for both school leavers and adults, thus combining the main functions of an FE college and a sixth form college. Generally, district councils with such colleges have adopted a tertiary system or structure where a single local institution provides all the 16-19 and adult education, and where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (i.e. schools only serve ages 11-16).
Canada
Higher education in Canada includes provincial, territorial, Indigenous and military higher education systems. The ideal objective of Canadian higher education is to offer every Canadian the opportunity to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to realize their utmost potential. It aspires to cultivate a world-class workforce, enhance the employment rate of Canadians, and safeguard Canada's enduring prosperity.
United States
The higher education system in the United States is decentralized and regulated independently by each state with accreditors playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students.
Nigeria and Hong Kong
In Nigeria, tertiary education refers to post-secondary education received at universities (government or privately funded), monotechnics, polytechnics and colleges of education. After completing a secondary education, students may enroll in a tertiary institution or acquire a vocational education. In Hong Kong "tertiary education" or "higher education" refers to any education higher than secondary education.
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