Functionalist Theory of Education: Manifestations, Key Thinkers, and Modern Relevance

The functionalist theory of education posits that education is a crucial social institution that contributes to the stability and smooth functioning of society. It emphasizes the positive functions education performs, ensuring social order and progress. This article will explore the key ideas of functionalism, its application to education, influential theorists, and criticisms, providing a comprehensive understanding of this perspective.

Understanding Functionalism

Functionalism views society as a complex organism with interconnected parts, each fulfilling a specific function to maintain overall balance and equilibrium. This perspective emphasizes the importance of shared values and norms, referred to as a 'value consensus,' in holding society together. In this view, the individual is secondary to the collective; each person plays a vital role in ensuring the continuity and stability of society. Functionalists examine social institutions in terms of the positive role they play in society as a whole.

The Functionalist Theory of Education: Core Ideas and Examples

Functionalists believe that education is a vital social institution that meets the needs of society and maintains stability. They argue that a prosperous and advanced society is built upon a value consensus - a shared set of norms and values that everyone agrees on and is expected to uphold. For functionalists, society takes precedence over the individual, and consensus values foster a common identity, unity, cooperation, and shared goals through moral education.

Functionalists identify manifest and latent functions of education. Manifest functions are the intended and openly stated goals of the education system, while latent functions are the unintended but often significant consequences of educational practices.

Manifest Functions

Socialization: Education is a primary agent of secondary socialization, teaching pupils how to behave, function, and navigate society. Pupils are taught age-appropriate topics and build their knowledge as they go through education. They learn and develop an understanding of their own identities and opinions and society's rules and norms, which are influenced by a value consensus. Schools instill societal values, preparing children for life in wider society.
Social Control: Education serves as an agent of social control, instilling values such as obedience, perseverance, punctuality, and discipline, which are valued by society, so they become compliant members of society. Schools and other educational institutions are responsible for teaching pupils things that society values.
Role Allocation: Education prepares and sorts individuals for their future roles in society. Education allocates people to appropriate jobs based on how well they do academically and their talents. They are responsible for identifying the most qualified people for the top positions in society. This is also referred to as 'social placement'. Education provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility through allowing individuals of all social backgrounds to gain credentials that will broaden their prospects in the future. Colleges and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek.
Transmission of Culture: Education transmits the norms and values of the dominant culture to pupils to mold them and help them assimilate into society and accept their roles.
Change and Innovation: Schools are sources of change and innovation; they adapt to meet societal needs, provide knowledge, and act as keepers of knowledge.

Latent Functions

Establishing Social Networks: Secondary schools and higher education institutions gather together under one roof individuals of a similar age, social background, and sometimes race and ethnicity, depending on where they're located. Pupils are taught to connect with each other and build social contacts. This helps them network for future roles. Forming peer groups also teaches them about friendships and relationships.
Engaging in Group Work: When pupils collaborate on tasks and assignments, they learn skills that are valued by the job market, such as teamwork. When they are made to compete with each other, they learn another skill valued by the job market - competitiveness.
Creating a Generational Gap: Pupils and students may be taught things that go against their families' beliefs, creating a generational gap. For instance, some families may be biased against certain social groups, e.g. specific ethnic groups or LGBT people, but pupils are taught about inclusivity and acceptance in some schools.
Restricting Activities: By law, children must be enrolled in education. They are required to stay in education until a specific age. Because of this, children cannot fully participate in the job market. In addition, they are required to pursue hobbies their parents and carers might want them to, which may at the same time distract them from engaging in crime and deviant behaviour.

Key Functionalist Theorists

Several prominent sociologists have contributed to the development of the functionalist theory of education.

Émile Durkheim

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) viewed school as a 'society in miniature' and believed education provided children with necessary secondary socialisation. Education serves the needs of society by helping pupils develop specialist skills and creating 'social solidarity'. Society is a source of morality, and so is education. Education aids in fostering elements such as discipline, attachment, and autonomy.

Durkheim argued that society can only function and survive if there exists amongst its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity. Individuals must feel themselves to be part of a single organism; without this, society would collapse. Durkheim believed that pre-industrial societies had mechanical solidarity. Cohesion and integration came from people feeling and being connected through cultural ties, religion, work, educational achievements, and lifestyles. Industrial societies progress towards organic solidarity, which is cohesion based on people being dependent on each other and having similar values. Teaching children helps them see themselves as part of the bigger picture. They learn how to be part of society, cooperate to achieve common goals, and let go of selfish or individualistic desires.

Durkheim believed society requires a level of role differentiation because modern societies have complex divisions of labor. Industrial societies are based mainly on the interdependence of specialised skills and need workers who are able to carry out their roles. Schools help pupils develop specialised skills and knowledge, so they can play their part in the division of labor. Education teaches people that production requires cooperation between different specialists; everyone, no matter their level, must fulfill their roles.

Evaluating Durkheim

David Hargreaves (1982) argues that the education system encourages individualism. Instead of seeing copying as a form of collaboration, individuals are punished and encouraged to compete with one another. Postmodernists argue that contemporary society is more culturally diverse, with people of many faiths and beliefs living side-by-side. Schools do not produce a shared set of norms and values for society, nor should they, because this marginalises other cultures, beliefs, and points of view. Postmodernists also believe the Durkheimian theory is outdated. Durkheim wrote that when there was a 'Fordist' economy, specialist skills were needed to sustain economic growth. Today's society is a lot more advanced, and the economy needs workers with flexible skills. Marxists argue that the Durkheimian theory ignores the inequalities of power in society. They suggest schools teach pupils and students the values of the capitalist ruling class and do not serve the interests of the working class, or 'proletariat'. Like Marxists, feminists argue there is no value consensus. Schools today still teach pupils patriarchal values; disadvantaging women and girls in society.

Talcott Parsons

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) built on Durkheim's ideas, arguing that schools were agents of secondary socialisation. He thought it was essential for children to learn societal norms and values, so they could function. Parson's theory considers education a 'focal socialising agency', which acts as a bridge between the family and wider society, detaching children from their primary caregivers and family and training them to accept and successfully fit into their social roles.

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According to Parsons, schools uphold universalistic standards, meaning they are objective - they judge and hold all pupils to the same standards. The judgments of educational institutions and teachers about pupils' abilities and talents are always fair, as opposed to the views of their parents and carers, which are always subjective. Parson referred to this as particularistic standards, where children are judged based on the criteria of their particular families.

Particularistic Standards

Children are not judged by standards that can be applied to everyone in society. These standards are only applied within the family, where children are judged based on subjective factors, in turn, based on what the family values. Here, status is ascribed. Ascribed statuses are social and cultural positions that are inherited and fixed at birth and unlikely to change.

Universalistic Standards

Universalistic standards mean that everyone is judged by the same standards, regardless of family ties, class, race, ethnicity, gender or sexuality. Here, status is achieved. Achieved statuses are social and cultural positions that are earned based on skills, merit and talent.

Parsons argued that both the education system and society are based on 'meritocratic' principles. Meritocracy is a system which expresses the idea that people should be rewarded based on their efforts and abilities. The 'meritocratic principle' teaches pupils the value of equality of opportunity and encourages them to be self-motivated. Pupils gain recognition and status through their efforts and actions only. By testing them and evaluating their abilities and talents, schools match them to suitable jobs, while encouraging competition. Those who do not do well academically will understand that their failure is their own doing because the system is fair and just.

Evaluating Parsons

Marxists believe meritocracy plays an integral part in developing false class consciousness. They refer to it as the myth of meritocracy because it persuades the proletariat to believe that the capitalist ruling class obtained their positions through hard work, and not because of their family ties, exploitation, and access to top educational institutions. Bowles and Gintis (1976) argued that capitalist societies are not meritocratic. Meritocracy is a myth designed to make working-class pupils and other marginalised groups blame themselves for systemic failures and discrimination. The criteria by which people are judged serve the dominant culture and class, and do not take into account human diversity. Educational attainment is not always an indicator of what job or role someone might take up in society.

Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore

Davis and Moore (1945) developed a functionalist theory of social stratification, which views social inequalities as necessary for functional modern societies because it motivates people to work harder. Davis and Moore believe meritocracy works because of competition. The most talented and qualified pupils are selected for the best roles. This does not necessarily mean they achieved their position because of their status; it is because they were the most determined and qualified.

For Davis and Moore:

Social stratification functions as a way of allocating roles.
What happens in schools reflects what happens in wider society.
Individuals have to prove their worth and show what they can do because education sifts and sorts people according to their abilities.
High rewards compensate people. The longer someone remains in education, the more likely they are to get a well-paid job.
Inequality is a necessary evil.

Strengths of the Functionalist Theory of Education

Highlights the Positive Functions of Education: The functionalist perspective emphasizes the positive contributions of education to individuals and society, such as socialization, skill development, and social mobility. School performs positive functions for most pupils most of the time - even though students might not want to go to school sometimes and not necessarily enjoy school some of the time, the majority come out after 13 years of formal schooling as reasonable human beings.
Links Education to Economic Growth: Functionalism recognizes the connection between education and economic development, suggesting that a well-functioning education system benefits the wider society and economy. There does seem to be a link between education and economic growth, suggesting a good education system benefits the wider society and economy.
Explains Social Solidarity: The theory explains how education fosters social solidarity by transmitting shared values and norms, creating a sense of collective identity. Schools do at least try to foster ‘solidarity’ - through PSHE lessons and teaching British Values for example.
Meritocratic Ideals: Functionalism highlights the importance of meritocracy in education, where individuals are rewarded based on their abilities and efforts, promoting equality of opportunity. Schooling is more meritocratic than in the 19th century (fairer).
Education is more ‘work focused’ today - increasing amounts of vocational courses. If you look at post-16 education especially there is a lot of diverse courses offered and it it is difficult to see how technologically advanced post-industrial economies could function without a thriving post-16 and university sectors.

Criticisms of the Functionalist Theory of Education

Despite its contributions, the functionalist theory of education has faced several criticisms:

Ignores Inequalities: Critics argue that functionalism overlooks the inequalities of power and resources in society, failing to address how the education system can perpetuate social stratification and disadvantage marginalized groups. Marxists argue the education system is not meritocratic - wealthier students from higher socio-economic backgrounds still get better results than poorer students from lower socio-economic backgrounds, this is true within the state school system, but the largest difference in achievement is between the 7% of very wealthy students who attend fee paying independent schools and the 93% who attend state schools.
Overemphasis on Consensus: Functionalism assumes a value consensus in society, which may not always exist. Critics argue that schools may not produce a shared set of norms and values for society, nor should they, because this marginalises other cultures, beliefs, and points of view.
Neglects Negative Aspects: The theory tends to ignore the negative aspects of schooling, such as bullying, alienation, and the experiences of students for whom the system does not work. Functionalism ignores the negative sides of school - e.g. bullying and there are a minority for who it doesn’t work, such as those permanently excluded.
Outdated Perspective: Some argue that the functionalist perspective is outdated, developed during modernity, and may not fully capture the complexities of postmodern society, which emphasizes individualism and diversity. For example, schools today focus more on developing the individual rather than teaching duties and responsibilities that individuals should adopt towards society - it’s more about the individual and less about solidarity (following the shift from modern to postmodern society).
Ideological Bias: Marxists argue that the functionalist view of education is ideological, reflecting the views of the powerful and legitimizing the existing social order. The Functionalist perspective on education was developed in the late 19th century (Durkheim) and the 1950s (Parsons) - during modernity, but with the shift to postmodernity society has changed and the British school system seems to have adapted with it.
Limited Understanding of Disruption: It is difficult to argue that schools performed any of the above four functions during the disruption caused by the government’s response to the pandemic, especially not being judged by universalistic standards (no standardised exams) or meritocracy (because private school teachers inflated their students’ grades more than state school teachers).

Contemporary Evidence and Functionalism

Contemporary evidence suggests that the functionalist view of education has limitations in helping us understand the role of education in society.

The Shift to the Ebacc: The government plans to make 90% of pupils sit GCSEs from with the Ebacc suite of subjects by 2025. The net effect of making students sit a narrower range of subjects is an increase in the inequality of outcomes along class lines, which goes against the idea of meritocracy as it reproduces class inequality.
The Problem with PREVENT and British Values: The requirement to teach British Values in schools started in 2015 and emerged out of the PREVENT agenda, which required schools to intervene when they suspected (mainly Muslim) children were being radicalised and drawn into terrorism. It is highly unlikely that the requirement on schools to teach British Values is going to promote Value Consensus in any meaningful way.
BREXIT: The EU Referendum in 2015 firmly split the UK population down the middle, with approximately half the population voting to stay in the EU and half voting to leave. This suggests that there is no meaningful value consensus around the idea of how Britain should relate to the wider world.
Graduate Labour Market Statistics: The 2021 Graduate Labour Market statistics suggest some broad support for education performing the role allocation function, where a tiered education system sifts and sorts people into higher and higher skilled roles. However there are still around 25% of graduates who end up in lower skilled jobs so clearly the system isn’t that effective, and it’s also clear that going to university is NOT the only way to secure a higher-skilled job.

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